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  • Perineuronal nets and GABAergic cells in the inferior colliculus of guinea pigs. 24409124

    Perineuronal nets (PNs) are aggregates of extracellular matrix that have been associated with neuronal plasticity, critical periods, fast-spiking cells and protection from oxidative stress. Although PNs have been reported in the auditory system in several species, there is disagreement about the distribution of PNs within the inferior colliculus (IC), an important auditory hub in the midbrain. Furthermore, PNs in many brain areas are preferentially associated with GABAergic cells, but whether such an association exists in the IC has not been addressed. We used Wisteria floribunda agglutinin staining and immunohistochemistry in guinea pigs to examine PNs within the IC. PNs are present in all IC subdivisions and are densest in the central portions of the IC. Throughout the IC, PNs are preferentially associated with GABAergic cells. Not all GABAergic cells are surrounded by PNs, so the presence of PNs can be used to subdivide IC GABAergic cells into "netted" and "non-netted" categories. Finally, PNs in the IC, like those in other brain areas, display molecular heterogeneity that suggests a multitude of functions.
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  • Toward RNAi therapy for the polyglutamine disease Machado-Joseph disease. 23765441

    Machado-Joseph disease (MJD) is a dominantly inherited ataxia caused by a polyglutamine-coding expansion in the ATXN3 gene. Suppressing expression of the toxic gene product represents a promising approach to therapy for MJD and other polyglutamine diseases. We performed an extended therapeutic trial of RNA interference (RNAi) targeting ATXN3 in a mouse model expressing the full human disease gene and recapitulating key disease features. Adeno-associated virus (AAV) encoding a microRNA (miRNA)-like molecule, miRATXN3, was delivered bilaterally into the cerebellum of 6- to 8-week-old MJD mice, which were then followed up to end-stage disease to assess the safety and efficacy of anti-ATXN3 RNAi. Despite effective, lifelong suppression of ATXN3 in the cerebellum and the apparent safety of miRATXN3, motor impairment was not ameliorated in treated MJD mice and survival was not prolonged. These results with an otherwise effective RNAi agent suggest that targeting a large extent of the cerebellum alone may not be sufficient for effective human therapy. Artificial miRNAs or other nucleotide-based suppression strategies targeting ATXN3 more widely in the brain should be considered in future preclinical tests.
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  • A novel activator of CBP/p300 acetyltransferases promotes neurogenesis and extends memory duration in adult mice. 23804093

    Although the brain functions of specific acetyltransferases such as the CREB-binding protein (CBP) and p300 have been well documented using mutant transgenic mice models, studies based on their direct pharmacological activation are still missing due to the lack of cell-permeable activators. Here we present a small-molecule (TTK21) activator of the histone acetyltransferases CBP/p300, which, when conjugated to glucose-based carbon nanosphere (CSP), passed the blood-brain barrier, induced no toxicity, and reached different parts of the brain. After intraperitoneal administration in mice, CSP-TTK21 significantly acetylated histones in the hippocampus and frontal cortex. Remarkably, CSP-TTK21 treatment promoted the formation of long and highly branched doublecortin-positive neurons in the subgranular zone of the dentate gyrus and reduced BrdU incorporation, suggesting that CBP/p300 activation favors maturation and differentiation of adult neuronal progenitors. In addition, mRNA levels of the neuroD1 differentiation marker and BDNF, a neurotrophin required for the terminal differentiation of newly generated neurons, were both increased in the hippocampus concomitantly with an enrichment of acetylated-histone on their proximal promoter. Finally, we found that CBP/p300 activation during a spatial training, while not improving retention of a recent memory, resulted in a significant extension of memory duration. This report is the first evidence for CBP/p300-mediated histone acetylation in the brain by an activator molecule, which has beneficial implications for the brain functions of adult neurogenesis and long-term memory. We propose that direct stimulation of acetyltransferase function could be useful in terms of therapeutic options for brain diseases.
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  • Ifit2 deficiency results in uncontrolled neurotropic coronavirus replication and enhanced encephalitis via impaired alpha/beta interferon induction in macrophages. 24198415

    Type I interferons (IFN-α/β) limit viral dissemination prior to the emergence of adaptive immune responses through the concerted action of interferon-stimulated genes (ISGs). Although IFN-α/β induction by coronaviruses is modest, it effectively limits viral spread within the central nervous system (CNS) and protects against mortality. The protective roles of specific ISGs against the mouse hepatitis virus (MHV) members of the coronaviruses are largely unknown. This study demonstrates a protective role of the ISG Ifit2 in encephalitis induced by the dual hepato- and neurotropic MHV-A59. Contrasting the mild encephalitis and 100% survival of MHV-A59-infected wild-type (wt) mice, nearly 60% of infected Ifit2(-/-) mice exhibited severe encephalitis and succumbed between 6 and 8 days postinfection. Increased clinical disease in Ifit2(-/-) mice coincided with higher viral loads and enhanced viral spread throughout the CNS parenchyma. Ifit2(-/-) mice also expressed significantly reduced IFN-α/β and downstream ISG mRNAs Ifit1, Isg15, and Pkr, while expression of proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines was only modestly affected in the CNS. Impaired IFN-α/β induction in the absence of Ifit2 was confirmed by ex vivo mRNA analysis of microglia and macrophages, the prominent cell types producing IFN-α/β following MHV CNS infection. Furthermore, both IFN-α/β mRNA and protein production were significantly reduced in MHV-infected Ifit2(-/-) relative to wt bone marrow-derived macrophages. Collectively, the data implicate Ifit2 as a positive regulator of IFN-α/β expression, rather than direct antiviral mediator, during MHV-induced encephalitis.
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  • Early intrinsic hyperexcitability does not contribute to motoneuron degeneration in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. 25313866

    In amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) the large motoneurons that innervate the fast-contracting muscle fibers (F-type motoneurons) are vulnerable and degenerate in adulthood. In contrast, the small motoneurons that innervate the slow-contracting fibers (S-type motoneurons) are resistant and do not degenerate. Intrinsic hyperexcitability of F-type motoneurons during early postnatal development has long been hypothesized to contribute to neural degeneration in the adult. Here, we performed a critical test of this hypothesis by recording from identified F- and S-type motoneurons in the superoxide dismutase-1 mutant G93A (mSOD1), a mouse model of ALS at a neonatal age when early pathophysiological changes are observed. Contrary to the standard hypothesis, excitability of F-type motoneurons was unchanged in the mutant mice. Surprisingly, the S-type motoneurons of mSDO1 mice did display intrinsic hyperexcitability (lower rheobase, hyperpolarized spiking threshold). As S-type motoneurons are resistant in ALS, we conclude that early intrinsic hyperexcitability does not contribute to motoneuron degeneration.
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  • Cortical neurons are a prominent source of the proinflammatory cytokine osteopontin in HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders. 25636782

    The proinflammatory cytokine osteopontin (OPN) is elevated in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) in individuals with HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders (HAND) and remains so in those on suppressive antiretroviral therapy. To understand the pathophysiological significance of elevated OPN in the CNS, we sought to determine the cellular source of this cytokine. As HIV-1 replicates productively in macrophages/microglia, we tested whether these cells are the predominant producers of OPN in the brain. Stringent patient selection criteria, which excluded brain tissues from those with evidence of drug abuse and dependence, were used. Uninfected normal controls, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), HIV+ asymptomatic neurocognitive impairment (ANI), and HIV+ mild neurocognitive disorder (MND)/HIV-associated dementia (HAD) groups were included. Double-label immunohistochemistry for CNS cells and OPN was used to quantify OPN expression in astrocytes, macrophages/microglia, and neurons. While resident macrophages/microglia expressed OPN, astrocytes and unexpectedly neurons were also a major source of OPN. OPN levels in ionized Ca(2+)-binding adapter 1 (Iba1)/allograft inflammatory factor-1 (AIF-1)+ microglia in HIV+ ANI and MND/HAD exceeded those of HIV-negative controls and were comparable to expression seen in ALS. Moreover, in neurons, OPN was expressed at the highest levels in the HIV+ ANI group. These findings suggest that while infiltrating HIV-infected macrophages are most likely the initial source of OPN, resident CNS cells become activated and also express this inflammatory cytokine at significant levels. Moreover, as OPN levels are elevated compared to uninfected individuals and increases with the severity of impairment, it appears that the expression of OPN is persistent and sustained within the brain parenchyma in those that progress to HAND.
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  • Distribution of GABAergic cells in the inferior colliculus that project to the thalamus. 24744703

    A GABAergic component has been identified in the projection from the inferior colliculus (IC) to the medial geniculate body (MG) in cats and rats. We sought to determine if this GABAergic pathway exists in guinea pig, a species widely used in auditory research. The guinea pig IC contains GABAergic cells, but their relative abundance in the IC and their relative contributions to tectothalamic projections are unknown. We identified GABAergic cells with immunochemistry for glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD) and determined that ~21% of IC neurons are GABAergic. We then combined retrograde tracing with GAD immunohistochemistry to identify the GABAergic tectothalamic projection. Large injections of Fast Blue, red fluorescent beads or FluoroGold were deposited to include all subdivisions of the MG. The results demonstrate a GABAergic pathway from each IC subdivision to the ipsilateral MG. GABAergic cells constitute ~22% of this ipsilateral pathway. In addition, each subdivision of the IC had a GABAergic projection to the contralateral MG. Measured by number of tectothalamic cells, the contralateral projection is about 10% of the size of the ipsilateral projection. GABAergic cells constitute about 20% of the contralateral projection. In summary, the results demonstrate a tectothalamic projection in guinea pigs that originates in part from GABAergic cells that project ipsilaterally or contralaterally to the MG. The results show similarities to both rats and cats, and carry implications for the role of GABAergic tectothalamic projections vis-à-vis the presence (in cats) or near absence (in rats and guinea pigs) of GABAergic interneurons in the MG.
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  • Bone marrow-derived microglia infiltrate into the paraventricular nucleus of chronic psychological stress-loaded mice. 24303068

    Microglia of the central nervous system act as sentinels and rapidly react to infection or inflammation. The pathophysiological role of bone marrow-derived microglia is of particular interest because they affect neurodegenerative disorders and neuropathic pain. The hypothesis of the current study is that chronic psychological stress (chronic PS) induces the infiltration of bone marrow-derived microglia into hypothalamus by means of chemokine axes in brain and bone marrow.Here we show that bone marrow-derived microglia specifically infiltrate the paraventricular nucleus (PVN) of mice that received chronic PS. Bone marrow derived-microglia are CX3CR1(low)CCR2(+)CXCR4(high), as distinct from CX3CR1(high)CCR2(-)CXCR4(low) resident microglia, and express higher levels of interleukin-1β (IL-1β) but lower levels of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α). Chronic PS stimulates the expression of monocyte chemotactic protein-1 (MCP-1) in PVN neurons, reduces stromal cell-derived factor-1 (SDF-1) in the bone marrow and increases the frequency of CXCR4(+) monocytes in peripheral circulation. And then a chemokine (C-C motif) receptor 2 (CCR2) or a β3-adrenoceptor blockade prevents infiltration of bone marrow-derived microglia in the PVN.Chronic PS induces the infiltration of bone marrow-derived microglia into PVN, and it is conceivable that the MCP-1/CCR2 axis in PVN and the SDF-1/CXCR4 axis in bone marrow are involved in this mechanism.
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  • Expression of progerin in aging mouse brains reveals structural nuclear abnormalities without detectible significant alterations in gene expression, hippocampal stem cell ... 25343989

    Hutchinson-Gilford progeria syndrome (HGPS) is a segmental progeroid syndrome with multiple features suggestive of premature accelerated aging. Accumulation of progerin is thought to underlie the pathophysiology of HGPS. However, despite ubiquitous expression of lamin A in all differentiated cells, the HGPS mutation results in organ-specific defects. For example, bone and skin are strongly affected by HGPS, while the brain appears to be unaffected. There are no definite explanations as to the variable sensitivity to progeria disease among different organs. In addition, low levels of progerin have also been found in several tissues from normal individuals, but it is not clear if low levels of progerin contribute to the aging of the brain. In an attempt to clarify the origin of this phenomenon, we have developed an inducible transgenic mouse model with expression of the most common HGPS mutation in brain, skin, bone and heart to investigate how the mutation affects these organs. Ultrastructural analysis of neuronal nuclei after 70 weeks of expression of the LMNA c.1824Cgreater than T mutation showed severe distortion with multiple lobulations and irregular extensions. Despite severe distortions in the nuclei of hippocampal neurons of HGPS animals, there were only negligible changes in gene expression after 63 weeks of transgenic expression. Behavioral analysis and neurogenesis assays, following long-term expression of the HGPS mutation, did not reveal significant pathology. Our results suggest that certain tissues are protected from functional deleterious effects of progerin.
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  • Purkinje cell compartmentation in the cerebellum of the lysosomal Acid phosphatase 2 mutant mouse (nax - naked-ataxia mutant mouse). 24722417

    The Acp2 gene encodes the beta subunit of lysosomal acid phosphatase, which is an isoenzyme that hydrolyzes orthophosphoric monoesters. In mice, a spontaneous mutation in Acp2 results in severe cerebellar defects. These include a reduced size, abnormal lobulation, and an apparent anterior cerebellar disorder with an absent or hypoplastic vermis. Based on differential gene expression in the cerebellum, the mouse cerebellar cortex can normally be compartmentalized anteroposteriorly into four transverse zones and mediolaterally into parasagittal stripes. In this study, immunohistochemistry was performed using various Purkinje cell compartmentation markers to examine their expression patterns in the Acp2 mutant. Despite the abnormal lobulation and anterior cerebellar defects, zebrin II and PLCβ4 showed similar expression patterns in the nax mutant and wild type cerebellum. However, fewer stripes were found in the anterior zone of the nax mutant, which could be due to a lack of Purkinje cells or altered expression of the stripe markers. HSP25 expression was uniform in the central zone of the nax mutant cerebellum at around postnatal day (P) 18-19, suggesting that HSP25 immunonegative Purkinje cells are absent or delayed in stripe pattern expression compared to the wild type. HSP25 expression became heterogeneous around P22-23, with twice the number of parasagittal stripes in the nax mutant compared to the wild type. Aside from reduced size and cortical disorganization, both the posterior zone and nodular zone in the nax mutant appeared less abnormal than the rest of the cerebellum. From these results, it is evident that the anterior zone of the nax mutant cerebellum is the most severely affected, and this extends beyond the primary fissure into the rostral central zone/vermis. This suggests that ACP2 has critical roles in the development of the anterior cerebellum and it may regulate anterior and central zone compartmentation.
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